Learning+Theory+Questions


 * 1. Behaviorism JJ[[image:group_clapping_150_clr.gif align="right"]] **

Mr. Ogon is ready to begin the geometry unit on Shapes and Properties. He is trying to decide how to introduce and/or review the basic concepts that students need to understand. Examine the following suggestions and select the option that best illustrates the Learning Theory know as Behaviorism

**A.** Mr. Ogon decides to get his students actively involved in the opening geometry lesson. He explains to the class that they are going to begin a study of shapes and he needs their help in deciding the kinds of shapes that they should study. Mr. Ogon forms cooperative groups of students and gives them the following open ended questions: “What is a shape?” and “How many shapes can you find?” He then gives the class a full period to explore the room and to create a presentation on ‘Shapes’ that they will share with the class the following day.

**B.** Mr. Ogon showed the students geometrical shapes on the Smart board. He reviewed the key properties of the shapes, pointing to the corners, sides and vertices. He then showed students 2 D shapes and asked them to recall names of the shapes as well as identify key features of the shape. After the whole class activity was completed students were asked to partner up and go through a similar worksheet identifying shapes and their properties.

**C.** Mr. Ogon begins the unit by reviewing and demonstrating how the area of an irregular, straight-edged shape can be calculated by splitting it into known regular shapes. Mr. Ogon hopes that presenting an unusual area problem as a follow-up activity will encourage students to draw upon their past experiences of using proven procedures and apply that knowledge in solving a new problem. The class goes outside and, in small groups, are assigned a rain puddle and are asked to find its surface area.

**D.** Mr. Ogon decides to use a computer-based tutorial he discovered in Open Courseware on the Internet. Each student will work at their own pace as they learn the names and properties of 2d shapes using a sequence of lessons. Each online lesson will present valuable information and then offer a connected, interactive activity that will monitor the student’s progress. The program will offer further practice or promote the student to the next lesson and its related learning activities as needed. A summary of each student's progress in each session will be available for Mr. Ogon to assess for desired outcomes.

__**Rationale for Answer A:**__ Answer A reflects a constructivist classroom in which students are actively involved in the learning and actively trying to construct meaning. In this example, students are building on their own understandings of ‘shape’, rather than relying on someone else’s meaning, which is consistent with constructivist pedagogy ([]). The teacher’s decisions in this lesson reflect an understanding of the social nature or learning, the value of language, and the value of sensory input, all important aspects of constructivism ([|http://www.lifecircles-inc.com/Learningtheories/ constructivism/constructivism.html]).

__**Rationale For B**:__ Answer B is reflective of the cognitive classroom in which students are explicilty taught concepts and terms using a scaffolding method where by strategies such as chunking material into smaller terms for recall ease are incorporated. [|(http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Cognitive_Tools_in_the_classroom]) Repetition for conceptual understanding is viewed in this classroom by Mr. Orgon teaching a concept on the smart board which again he reteaches using tactile manipulatives. He checks for understanding of this smalled chunked concept by asking students to complete a similar worksheet that parallels the classroom activity.

__**Rationale for Answer C:**__ C is an example of Case-Based Reasoning in that students will recall and reuse previous known methods as they begin their task. Faced with this slightly different problem, students will try out their known solution(s) and assess for suitability. If previous solutions do not quite fit this particular case, students will explore other methods or attempt to modify previous methods, in order to solve this novel problem. Any method that proves successful will be added to the 'library of cases' that can be accessed for future, similar conundrums. As Kolodner explains, "Using cases to aid in evaluation is particularly helpful when there are many unknowns, making any other kind of evaluation impossible or hard. Instead, solutions are evaluated in the context of previous similar situations. Again, the reasoner does his/her evaluation based on what worked in the past."(P. 29) (Kolodner, J. L. (1992). An Introduction to Case-Based Reasoning. Artificial Intelligence Review 6, 3—34.)

__**D is the correct answer. **__ Behaviorism, as an approach to learning, encourages the teacher to modify the behavior of students by creating situations that reinforce students when they display the appropriate behavior. In this case, learning is seen as a sequence of stimulus and response actions. The tutorial links together responses requiring lower level skills and creates a learning ‘chain’ that gradually links to higher level skills. Feedback is immediate and re-covering of the material is provided until the necessary learning is achieved and observed. ([])

'Question' Placement on Bloom’s Taxonomy Grid:
This multiple choice question requires the responder to critically read each possible answer in the process of deciding a best fit. This would require dissecting each suggestion, thinking through and interpreting components, and finally, a consideration of which concepts from each Learning Theory are, or are not, in evidence. This would match the Analysis stage in the Cognitive Process Dimension and placement in the Conceptual Knowledge category.


 * 2. Cognitivism**

Question: A grade one teacher was developing a unit plan for her Science 'Living Things' Unit. Examine the details in each lesson below and apply your understanding of Cognitive Learning Theory to determine which example best demonstrates a methodology consistent with Cognitive Theory.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Answer: <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A) Together as a class, students would brainstorm what they already knew about living and non- living things. They would sort pictures of non-living and living thing things together and use a Venn diagram to organize the material on the Smart Board into two categories “living and non-living”. After a whole class activity was done, the teacher would assign a similar individual task for students to complete on their own.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">B) The class started by considering the question, "What is a living thing?" The teacher guided the students in the discussion and noted their ideas on the SmartBoard. Small groups were then formed and the students came up with their own definitions of 'living things' that they later shared with the group in their preferred manner (e.g. sharing a group poster, creating a PowerPoint, presenting a series of pictures). Students considered each other's responses and posed questions that puzzled them. Armed with the definitions created by the students, the class then went on a walking trip through the school grounds, looking for examples of things that fit or contradicted the student definitions of 'living things'.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">C). Each student is provided with two envelopes: one contains images of “living and non-living things;” the other contains words to be matched to each picture. The student is instructed to match each vocabulary word to the correct picture: each pairing has been cut into interlocking puzzle pieces. This activity will be repeated at various times throughout the course of the unit. JJ

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">D). The instructor teaches the 7 criteria generally used to identify a living from a non-living thing. These are posted on the class website so that students can access this method of differentiation at any time as they progress through the unit. Each ‘thing’ needing to be categorized is processed through this model. JJ

__**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Rationale for Answer A: **__ <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Skills in the cognitive domain revolve around knowledge, comprehension, and critical thinking on a particular topic. The individual activity is a cognitive assignment because students are required to form their answers based on knowledge already acquired during the teacher lesson (background knowledge). Students are showing that they comprehend what was previously modeled to them.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Students are using an organizational chart both together as a class as well as individually to categorize the information. Smith and Ragan (1999) point out that “organizational techniques assist the learner in organizing information to be learned. Clustering and chunking by categories, using graphic organizers, generating expository and narrative structures, and using advance organizers are all organizational techniques”. Developing organizational techniques for the mind is a key strategy for cognitive theorists. This is supported by the views on the following website users/w/x/wxh139/cognitive_1.htm “The theoretical assumptions in cognitive psychology lend instructional systems a hand in the design of efficient processing strategies for the learners to acquire knowledge, e.g. mnemonic devices to reduce the workload of the short-term memory, rehearsal strategies to maintain information, and the use of metaphors and analogies to relate meaning of the new information to prior knowledge”.

__**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Rationale for Answer B **__ <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">B is representative of the constructivist paradigm. Students are engaged in inquiry, posing questions, and actively seeking answers. Discussion and collaboration are important in this constructivist classroom as they allow students to consider what they already know, and expand their understandings by exposing them to the ideas of others (Bednar et al., 1991, as cited in [coursework/ 802papers/Skaalid/defintion.html]). The teacher is allowing the students to construct their own understanding of 'living things', rather than imposing one common definition ([]). As described by Bednar et al. (1991), "learning is an active process in which meaning is developed on the basis of experience" ([education/coursework/802papers/Skaalid/definition.html])

__** Rationale for Answer C: JJ **__ <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">C represents the Learning Theory of Behaviorism. Drill and practice activities may be used as a means to master particular learning objectives: in this case recognition of essential unit vocabulary and associated spelling. A pre- and post- test may also be used to track successful acquisition of the desired learning behavior by each student. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">(From the University of Houston, an Electronic Textbook on Instructional Technology [])

__** Rationale for Answer D: JJ **__ <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">D represents Case-Based Learning Theory, as the students do not have to go through complex thought processes each time they are faced with a novel situation. Here, the findings of previous categorization efforts can be used to reduce the need for memorization and replication. Case-based reasoning is a “way of solving problems based on analogies to past experiences.” <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">(From a bio sketch of Dr. Kolodner, a pioneer in the use of this theory at [] <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In addition, this example of CBR underscores the idea that “transfer means being able to use what one learned in one situation in another for which it was not directly targeted.” ([])

=
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Under the Conceptual knowledge dimension, this task requires Analyzation. Using previous knowledge, concepts, principles, or theories in new situations. Key words in this taxonomy are ‘examine, apply and determine' ( in the question stem). The task of categorizing in the lesson ( answer A) requires students to do higher level learning tasks. ======


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">3. Constructivist scenario **

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A primary teacher (grades 2 & 3) is beginning an environmental study with her class. Think about what you know about learning theories. Examine the following scenarios, compare them, and identify the one that best exemplifies a constructivist classroom environment.


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A. **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Ms. Capa instructs her students to conduct further study regarding particular environmental topics outside of school time: there is such a lot of material to cover before the practice achievement tests at the end of the month. The teacher pins up a large, well-branched tree outline to the bulletin board and issues cutout leaf shapes to each of the students. She explains that for each completed homework task, the student gets to color a leaf shape (using the ‘special-use-only’ class gel pens) and pin it on the tree. The display will be left up for parents to view at parent/teacher interview night. (JJ Behaviorism)


 * B.** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Ms. Capa begins class with a brainstorming session on what the word ‘environment’ means with her class. They view two videos from Discovery Education on the internet that clearly illustrates what environment means. After watching the videos, the class adds to the brainstormed chart. The class then logs into Kidspiration and makes a pictorial concept map using the brainstormed ‘environment’ words in class as a guide to form their concept map. Students can be seen dragging in ‘trees, water, neighborhoods’ etc into their concept maps. To end the lesson, Ms. Capa summarizes what environment means. ( by Salima)


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">C. **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Ms. Capa begins by taking her class on a walking trip to Prince’s Island Park for the purpose of learning about the environment. After the field trip, she engages the class in a discussion about what they saw, what they noticed, and what they wondered. As a class, many topics were identified, including water in general, the river, litter around and in the river, trees, and various animals in the park. Together, Ms. Capa and her students identify topics for inquiry and students choose topics that most interest them. The class eagerly looks forward to the next day, when they will begin their group study by first of all listing what they already know about their topics, then proceed to record what they would like to know and begin to think about how they would like to 'show what they know'.


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 12pt;">D. **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 12pt;">Ms. Capa instructs her class in how to identify leaves and match them to a parent tree. They are taught to use a classification system that will help them to recognize five common tree families: []. As they continue in their study of the local environment, students often retrieve and reuse this classification model in order to solve their own “Mystery Leaf Problems.” ( JJ CBR)


 * __Rationale for Answer A:__ (JJ Behaviorism)**


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A represents a behaviorist approach to learning. Here the students will be given positive reinforcement for completing the desired task: a reward for completing the homework assigned. ([]) **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">However, “the definition of a positive reinforcement is more precise than that of reward. Specifically, we can say that positive reinforcement has occurred when three conditions have been met: **
 * **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A consequence is presented dependent on a behavior. **
 * **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The behavior becomes more likely to occur. **
 * **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The behavior becomes more likely to occur because and only because the consequence is presented dependent on the behavior.” **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">(From, [], and specifically at []) **

__**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Rationale for Answer B: **__


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">This is reflective of the cognitive theory. The use of a concept map strategy allows users to understand information in smaller parts, in order to internalize and make sense of the information. Organizational techniques assist the learner in organizing information to be learned (Smith & Ragan, 1999). Clustering and chunking by categories, using graphic organizers, and using advance organizers are all organizational techniques. When the teacher brainstorms and discusses with the students, it is a technique of Summarization. This is the paraphrasing of a definition or criterial attributes of a concept (Smith & Ragan, 1999). According to the website [] it is important to paraphrase rather than restate verbatim so that the learners will pay attention to the meaning rather than the precise wording used. Summarization might be done by the teacher or the learner. **


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Rationale for Answer C: __ **


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The correct answer to this question is ‘C’. Ms. Capa is employing many constructivist strategies in her classroom. As defined on the [|Oregon Technology in Education Council website,] "constructivist learning is based on students' active participation in problem-solving and critical thinking regarding a learning activity which they find relevant and engaging." Researcher Audrey Gray adds, "constructivist teaching is based on the belief that learning occurs as learners are actively involved in a process of meaning and knowledge construction as opposed to passively receiving information". In a constructivist classroom, "the teacher provides students with experiences that allow them to hypothesize, predict, manipulate objects, pose questions, research, investigate, imagine, and invent" (n.d., [|http://saskschoolboards.ca/ research/instruction/97-07.htm#A]).Ms. Capa is helping her students to both build and access their prior knowledge to use as a scaffold to their new learning. She facilitates a discussion/dialogue about their field trip, discovers the topics that her students find most engaging, and guides them in the development of topics for inquiry ([]). Ms. Capa also allows her students to choose the topic that they would like to investigate and encourages cooperative research groups. Ms. Capa’s classroom is dynamic, full of interaction, active learning, collaboration, and the exchange of ideas. Consistent with Constructive Theory, the learning is student-centred, and promotes student ownership of learning experiences ([]). **

__**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Rationale for Answer D: JJ **__


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">D represents a Case-Based Reasoning approach in that the students are taught a classification scheme that may be used to identify new leaf phenomena. The students can access and use this collection of previous leaf ‘cases’ whenever a new leaf presents itself. If a leaf/tree does not seem to be identified within this model ‘case’, the opportunity to create a new case presents itself: the student explores other methods of solving this problem and adds to the ‘leaf identification’ cases available for access by the community. At the German Research Centre for Artificial Intelligence, CBR: **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">“can be explained in one simple sentence (also known as the CBR assumption): **
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Similar problems have similar solutions. The basic idea of this assumption is to solve a current problem by reusing solutions that have been applied to similar problems in the past. Therefore, the current problem has to be compared with problems described in cases. Solutions contained in cases that represent very similar problems are then considered to be candidates for solving the current problem, too.” (From []) **


 * Placement on Bloom’s Taxonomy Grid: **
 * Under the Knowledge Dimension, this question involves Conceptual Knowledge and it accesses the Cognitive Process Dimension of Analyze. Key words in the question that substantiate this placement on the taxonomy grid include ‘examine’, and ‘compare’. In order to examine and compare the responses, students must have a solid conceptual understanding of Constructivist Learning Theory. For some students, 'thinking about what they know' may also promote metacognitive knowledge as they think about not only //what they know//, but also //how they know what they know//. **
 * Robin **


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">4. Case-Based Reasoning (JJ) **


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Students in Ms. Smith’s grade 8 class have almost completed their study of nets for 3d objects, a required mathematics unit within Shape and Space. Which of the following best exemplifies the application of Case-Based Reasoning (CBR) as students complete their final assignment? **


 * A. The students have been eagerly awaiting the end of the Shape and Space Unit. Throughout the unit, they have been gathering materials and planning projects in small groups. Each group has kept their plans to create unusual nets top secret. On the final day, they will challenge their classmates to examine their unique nets and predict the 3-d solids that they will form.(R. Constructivist)**


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 12pt;">B. Ms. Smith and the students re-examine the recorded steps of the process they previously followed to create 2d net design solutions that were successfully used to construct various 3d solids. Students are then challenged to follow the same process in order to design possible net configurations for an unfamiliar solid and are asked to report on their progress. (JJ CBR) **


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 12pt;">C. <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;">Ms. Smith reviews the process involved with creating 2D and 3D nets with the whole class. She draws each net on the flip chart and explicitly goes through each step, carefully segmenting. Students are then asked to repeat the steps involved to their partner, and once that is complete they are required to build a 2d or 3d net together of their choosing. Students are asked to use the technique of imagery to imagine making their nets in their minds first before tackling the partner task! **
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;">﻿(S Cognitivist) **

D. After viewing an animation of 2d shapes and their relationships to 3d solid Ms. Smith names, and demonstrates how to construct, various 3d shapes from related 2d nets. Ms. Smith then provides the students with templates of several of the 2d net designs from which they are asked to build the 3d models. Students are allowed to work with a partner to complete the task. When the models are complete, students are to display each model, marked with the correct 3d shape name, on a table set aside for such purposes. (JJ Behaviorist)


 * <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">__<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Rationale for Answer A): __ **


 * <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">A) reflects constructivist learning theory. In this example, students are engaged in hands-on problem solving ([]) and encouraged to construct their own understandings of concepts, both individually and socially (in their groups). The task set before the students is open-ended and designed in large part by the students themselves ([ca/research/instruction/97-07.htm]) (R constructivist) **


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Rationale for Answer B (JJ) __ **

** B is the correct answer. According to CBR, as outlined by Ian Watson, University of Auckland a new problem is matched against cases in a collection of other successfully solved problems. A similar case(s) are retrieved. A solution suggested by the matching cases is then reused and tested for success. Unless the retrieved case is a close match the solution will probably have to be revised producing a new case that can be retained. As a cognitive process it would require:**
 * **"Retrieving in memory the experience closest to a new situation**
 * **Suggesting a solution that is based on the experience or adapted to meet the demands of new situation**
 * **Evaluating the use of the solution**
 * **Storing this new problem-solving in the memory system"**
 * (From **Case-based reasoning and learning**)**


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In this example, students review the step-by-step process previously used to successfully solve similar challenges. This sample has been kept as a resource. The students may use this previous 'case' as a model to follow as they tackle the new problem. If additional steps are deemed necessary adjustments are made to the process model and this new 'case' is added to the resource collection. In essence, CBR uses prior experiences that can be recalled and applied to help solve new problems. **


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Rationale for Answer C: __ **


 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Answer C is reflective of the cognitive theory. Students learning under a cognitive approach require segments of steps to process information, as well learn best when discussion is involved. According to the website [], repetition is an instructional strategy used to maintain information in working memory. “With maintenance rehearsal, repetition is used to retain information for a certain period of time”). “Imagery is the use of pictures, illustrations, graphics or simply instructions to form images related to text material (Driscoll, 2000).” Imagery is usually easiest with concrete concepts, but can be useful for learners in developing a visual to concretely represent a more abstract concept” (Smith & Ragan, 1999). Both the strategies of repetition and imagery can be helpful for students learning and internalize new concepts according to the cognitive methodology.(S Cognitive) **


 * Rationale for Answer D: (JJ Behaviorist)**

(1) gaining attention (reception) (2) informing learners of the objective (expectancy) (3) stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) (4) presenting the stimulus (selective perception) (5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) (6) eliciting performance (responding) (7) providing feedback (reinforcement) (8) assessing performance (retrieval) (9) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization). (From [])
 * D illustrates an example of direct instruction, an approach situated within the behaviorist tradition. For instance, Robert Gagne (1916-2002) **
 * advocated a 9 step approach for instruction, as outlined below. The sample answer contains much of this step-by-step approach. **

**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">'Question' Placement on Bloom’s Taxonomy Grid: **

 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">This question fits into the Analyze stage of the Cognitive Process Dimension and is Conceptual under the Knowledge Dimension. The question requires consideration of the essential elements of each Learning Theory in order to for the responder to decide, "which best exemplifies" the application of CBR. To make this decision the responder would need to examine the parts that make up the whole in the various scenarios and identify and compare these characteristics to the elements that define/describe CBR as distinct from other learning theories. The responder needs to have a sound conceptual understanding of each of the four theories currently under review. **